...every good tree bringeth forth good fruit; but a corrupt
tree bringeth forth evil fruit. A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit,
neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit.
Matthew 7:17 -18
The
disastrous outcome of the events surrounding Waco, Texas, and the Branch
Davidians in 1993 was both shocking and terrifying to the American nation.
For many, the horror of this terrible event -- and others like it -- has
fostered skepticism and fear of any new or unfamiliar religious group.
Moreover, this fear is clearly not unwarranted. For, in contrast to the
vast majority of nations, the United States is a highly fertile breeding
ground for destructive cults. This is the case for four main reasons. First,
since the 1960s, many Americans have abandoned traditional forms of religion.
Second, there is a legal separation of church and state, and great religious
freedom and diversity in the population. Third, there are vast amounts
of open space in the United States where people can live in relative isolation.
And fourth, the established institutions of the United States -- schools,
governments, and families -- are "hard put to provide the emotional
security and intimate social support and love sought by many people in
our complex society."[1]
For
these reasons, it is imperative that new religious groups be carefully
examined to determine whether or not these organizations are cults. The
Bahai Faith is one such religious organization which must be carefully
investigated. This paper will explain the fundamental characteristics of
a cult and then examine whether or not the Bahai Faith embodies these
characteristics.
The Fundamental Characteristics of a Cult
The
word "cult" has very different meanings in different contexts.
Thus, before defining the basic characteristics of a cult, it is important
to examine this word carefully. In a theological and historical context,
the word "cult" concerns a style of worshipping and rituals,
and has a positive connotation. In a sociological context, the word "cult"
concerns a minority religious group that exists in conflict with the predominant
religion of the culture, and has a neutral connotation. In a general religious
context, the word "cult" concerns a small, new group -- often
headed by a charismatic leader -- that is not a sect, or variant, of the
established religion. In this context the word also has a neutral connotation.
In an evangelical or fundamentalist context, the word "cult"
concerns any religious group that does not accept the fundamentalist interpretation
of essential Christian doctrine. By this definition, "mainline and
liberal Christian denominations, and all of the other religions of the
world ... 70% of humanity" would be classified as cult groups. In
this context, the word has a clear negative connotation. Finally, in the
context of popular media usage, the word "cult" concerns a new,
destructive, and small religious group that practices "brain washing"
techniques and harmful rituals. This usage is obviously very negative[2].
For the purposes of this paper, the author will use the word "cult"
or "destructive cult" with its popular media connotation -- as
a psychologically and socially destructive religious group.
When
one examines the characteristics of a destructive cult, one finds many
non-defining characteristics cited in the literature. These non-defining
characteristics are elements that both destructive cults and neutral --
or even benign -- religious organizations often share in common. For example,
the promotion of social change, the promise of increased spiritual development,
the appeal to those who are searching for meaning in their lives, and the
stress of love and acceptance of its members are all commonly cited characteristics
which many destructive and non-destructive groups share. Thus, this paper
will examine only a cults defining characteristics, or characteristics
that destructive religious groups generally do embody and that non-destructive
religious groups generally do not. From the literature, the author has
identified five defining characteristics of destructive cults: 1.) a charismatic
leader demanding total authority, 2.) the use of "controlling"
techniques, 3.) social and physical isolation, 4.) extreme or fanatical
behavior, and 5.) secrecy and deception. In this section of the paper,
each of these characteristics will be fully explained.
1. The Leader
Destructive
religious groups almost invariably center around a living, self-appointed
leader[3]. This leader is generally esteemed as Gods representative on
Earth, as God Himself, or as one who has the sole right to interpret the
scripture of an established religion. The cult doctrine is based on his
revelations or ideology. Because of his position of divine enlightenment,
the cult leader exercises tremendous, and often absolute, authority over
his followers[4]. Individual cult members surrender their wills and their
lives to the responsibility and authority of the leader[5]. Additionally,
since no large organization can be run by one individual, the cult leader
generally has a "revered inner circle," or a group of loyal helpers
appointed by the leader, who, to a lesser degree, share the prestige and
power of the cult leader[6]. Also, there are often serious ethical violations
committed by the cult leader: the leader claims to be chaste and then impregnates
a follower, the leader preaches against drugs or wealth yet buys expensive
cars -- and often drugs -- with the cult members money[7]. It is important
to note, however, that it is not the mere presence of a leader that differentiates
destructive cults from non-destructive religious groups; rather, it is
the fact that this leader is plagued by ethical questions and demands total
authority over his followers. This authority is derived through practicing
"brain washing" techniques, isolating the cult followers, demanding
fanatical practices, and using deception.
2. The Use of "Controlling" Techniques
A large part of what makes a cult "destructive" is its use of
fear or guilt-based "mind control" techniques.[8] In order to
indoctrinate and reinforce the follower, various forms of physical deprivation,
social and physical isolation techniques, hell and salvation-based fear
techniques[9] and, most commonly, guilt-based, ritualistic confession of
sins is used. In the cult environment, this confession goes far beyond
its normal religious function. A followers thoughts are no longer his
or her own -- every past and previous thought and action now becomes the
property of the group. The group and its leaders use this information --
extracted in long confession sessions -- to manipulate and shame the individual.[10]
Also, critical thinking and views that differ from those of the group are
highly discouraged or actively suppressed and, as a general rule, the cult
community does not permit questioning of any sort.[11] The net result of
these controlling techniques is a shift in the followers' locus of control
and responsibility.[12] Followers lose the ability to think and act independently,
and develop a tremendous and harmful dependency upon the cult group and
its leader.[13]
3. Social and Physical Isolation
Cult members normally live in some form of isolation from the greater society.[14]
Almost invariably, cult members experience some form of social isolation
-- i.e. they have very little meaningful interaction with non-cult members.
This occurs in large part because virtually all of their time, effort,
and finances are devoted to the cult and its leader, leaving little time
for family, old friends, and their jobs.[15] A sharp we/they distinction
is drawn between members and those outside the cult, and a pervasive distrust
for everyone except the "saved" cult members is fostered by the
community.[16] Though not quite as common, destructive cults often require
physical isolation as well. Cult members live in communes, and often cannot
leave without permission.[17] This serves to further isolate the cult member
from those who would support his or her original belief system.
4. Extremist or Fanatical Behavior
One of the true defining characteristics of a destructive cult is its pervasive
fanaticism -- i.e. when a behavior or practice that is not necessarily
harmful (such as confession) is taken to a tremendous and unhealthy extreme.[18]
Members often neglect or abandon their families, jobs, schools, possessions,
and lives to protect the cult leader and community.[19] One area where
unhealthy excess is clear is in the dangerous or ascetic rituals of a destructive
religious group. Excessive praying, chanting, fasting, and sleep deprivation
can cause anxiety, exhaustion, illness, and eating disorders.[20] Other
dangerous rituals such as snake handling can prove lethal. A second area
where fanaticism appears is in the way believers "witness" their
beliefs and attempt to convert new followers. The believers are, "compulsively
and constantly witnessing beliefs to everyone, often in an extreme or confrontational
way . . ."[21] This aggressive, high-pressure proselytizing can involve
door-to-door recruiting, daily calls to potential converts, or threats
of eternal damnation.[22] A final area where cults manifest an unhealthy
excess is in the endorsement of various forms of violence[23] when used
for or by the cult. This can translate into a stock-piling of arms in Waco
Texas, or a "spare the rod, spoil the child" abusive mentality[24]
in Jonestown.
5.) Secrecy and Deception
Another part of what makes cults destructive forces in peoples lives is
the fact that the followers are often unaware of certain cult activities,
or are blatantly being deceived. Cult leaders often issue a "Sicilian
Code of Silence"[25] about their unethical conduct. Also, there is
often "secret doctrine" reserved only for cult members, and levels
of "secret doctrine"[26] as one goes up the hierarchy of leaders
within the cult structure. Destructive cults are often characterized by
financial secrecy and deception[27] as well, including the selling of indulgences,
unethical fund raising, and a refusal to produce financial records[28].
Additionally, "miracles" are often staged at "revivals,"
in the form of phony faith-healings.[29] Finally, cults such as the Boston
Church operate using "front groups"[30] -- subsidiary groups
which use a different name, but in reality are a part of the same destructive
group. Cults often use this method to penetrate college campuses.
With these defining characteristics in mind -- 1.) a charismatic leader
demanding total authority, 2.) the use of "controlling" techniques,
3.) social and physical isolation, 4.) extremist or fanatical behavior,
and 5.) secrecy and deception -- this paper will now examine whether or
not the Bahai Faith embodies any of these characteristics.
An Examination of Bahai Faith
Not every cult embodies all five of the above mentioned characteristics.
For the purposes of this investigation, if a religious organization embodies
even one of these characteristics -- because they are defining qualities
and, thus, not shared with non-destructive groups -- then it will be classified
as a destructive cult. Therefore, if the Bahai Faith clearly embodies
even one of these qualities, then it will be grouped as a cult. If, however,
it clearly embodies none of these characteristics it will be classified
as a non-destructive religious group. With this standard in mind, this
paper will again turn to the five defining characteristics of a cult.
1. The Leader
The Bahai Faith has no single living leader, nor does it have any formal
clergy members.[31] Rather, the leadership of the Bahai Faith is executed
through what Bahais term their "Administrative Order". To understand
the nature of this "Order", it is important to first give a brief
summary of the historical events that led up to it.
The founder of the Bahai Faith, a Persian nobleman named Mirza Husayn-Ali,
and surnamed Bahaullah (Arabic for Glory of God), first announced His
claim to be a Messenger or "Manifestation" of God. From this
time until His ascension in 1892 He wrote voluminously and these works
today constitute the Bahai "sacred text". Before His death Bahaullah,
appointed His eldest son Mirza Abbas, surnamed Abdul-Baha (literally
the Servant of Glory), as the head of His religion and the sole interpreter
of His writings.[32] Bahaullah promised that Abdul-Baha would have
the guidance of the Holy Spirit, and that there would someday be a "House
of Justice" to rule His Faith.[33]
Abdul-Baha, whom virtually all of the Bahais followed, served as head
of the Bahai religion and interpreter of the writings of His Father until
his ascension in 1921. Before His death, He appointed his eldest grandson,
Shoghi Effendi, as the head of the Faith and the sole interpreter of Bahaullahs
writings.[34] He also elaborated the means for the election of the "House
of Justice" spoken of by his Father, and gave this institution the
right to enact, "all ordinances and regulations that are not to be
found in the explicit Holy Text."[35]
Shoghi Effendi served as the head of the Bahai Faith and interpreted the
writings of Bahaullah until his death in 1957. He did not name a successor
-- possibly because he had no children -- however, in 1953 he did initiate
a plan termed the "Ten Year Crusade". During this "crusade"
the Bahai Faith experienced tremendous growth, and at its conclusion in
1963, the House of Justice -- a ruling body of nine members -- was elected.
Shortly thereafter this institution announced, "(The House of Justice)
cannot legislate to make possible the appointment of a successor to Shoghi
Effendi . . ."[36] Thus, the Bahai Faith was left with no single
leader, and still does not have one today.
The House of Justice now serves as the head of the international Bahai
community, and legislates on issues not covered in the writings of Bahaullah
or in the interpretations of Abdul-Baha and Shoghi Effendi. However,
it does not further interpret these writings.[37] Thus, in
contrast to most destructive cults, the Bahai Faith since 1957 has had
no single leader, nor anyone to "authoritatively" interpret the
writings of Bahaullah.
Moreover, in contrast to the appointed "inner circle" of most
cult leaders, the Bahais themselves elect the leaders of their "administrative
order". The local Bahai community annually elects the members of
its local administrative bodies, the Local Spiritual Assemblies. Delegates
from these local communities, in turn, annually elect the members of the
National Spiritual Assemblies. Likewise, the members of the National Spiritual
Assemblies elect the members of the Universal House of Justice once every
five years. Each administrative body has nine members and makes decisions
using a process Bahais term "consultation". Consultation is
a non-adversarial decision-making process where consensus on a decision
is the goal, but -- if consensus cannot be reached -- a majority vote will
suffice. The interesting feature of this system is that no individual member
of these institutions has the authority to make any decisions -- it is
only in group consultation "in the attitude and atmosphere of love"
that these institutions have any decision making authority.[38] The decisions
of a Local Assembly can be appealed first to the National Assembly and
then to the House of Justice.[39] Moreover, every nineteen days the Bahai
community also "consults" on community issues, and submits its
recommendations to the Local Assembly.
The only appointed positions in the Bahai administrative order are: 1.)
the Continental Counselors, who are appointed by the House of Justice and
who serve as advisers to (but have no authority over) the National Assemblies,
and 2.) the Auxiliary Board Members, who are appointed by the Counselors
and who serve as advisers to (but also have no authority over) the Local
Assemblies and communities.[40]
Concerning
the integrity of the leaders of the Bahai Faith, there are several methods
by which a leader can be removed for various ethical violations. First,
for flagrant ethical violations (such as sexual misconduct) administrative
privileges can be taken away from any believer. When this occurs the Bahai
can no longer vote, serve on assemblies, or give money to the Bahai religion.
When the issue is one of character, assembly members can also be removed
by a majority vote of the assembly. However, if the issue is one of administrative
incompetence, the Bahai community can vote out the assembly member during
the annual election.[41]
Finally, the Bahai writings state that no one can claim for themselves
the head position that Shoghi Effendi left unfilled.[42] The writings of
Bahaullah also state that a new Manifestation of God will not come for
at least a full 1,000 years.[43] Thus, if any Bahai claims either a.)
to be able to authoritatively interpret the sacred writings, b.) to be
the new head of the religion, or c.) to possess a new revelation from God,
then the House of Justice will expel him or her as a "covenant breaker".
A covenant breaker can, however, be re-admitted to the religion by the
House of Justice if he or she sincerely retracts his or her claims.[44]
Interestingly, all Bahais must shun this "covenant breaker"
and have no contact with him or her. Viewed critically, this practice of
"shunning" covenant breakers prevents and protects Bahais from
entering into the presence of a "charismatic cult leader". It
is also a mechanism that prevents charismatic leaders from gaining authority
within the Bahai religion.
In
sum, the Bahai Faith does not have a living, self-appointed leader or
leaders who demand absolute authority. On the contrary, in the Bahai religion
authority is exercised only by elected councils, or "assemblies",
using group "consultation".
2.) The Use of "Controlling" Techniques
Concerning
confession -- the controlling technique most often used in destructive
cults -- the Bahai writings (those of Bahaullah, Abdul-Baha, Shoghi
Effendi, and the House of Justice) expressly forbid the use of any type
of confession:
Bahaullah prohibits confession to, and seeking absolution
of one's sins from, a human being. Instead one should beg forgiveness from
God. In the Tablet of Bisharat, He states that such confession before
people results in one's humiliation and abasement, and He affirms that
God wisheth not the humiliation of His servants. (Bahais) are forbidden
to confess to any person, as do the Catholics to their priests, our sins
and shortcomings, or to do so in public, as some religious sects do . .
[45]
Thus, the most common controlling technique used by cults
-- public confession of sins -- is forbidden in the Bahai teachings. Moreover,
there is no evidence to indicate that the Bahais do not obey this ordinance
of their religion.
The
Bahais also have a less "fire and brimstone" theology of heaven,
hell, and salvation than do most cult communities. Bahais teach that there
is a "future life" after this life, and that "heaven
and hell are conditions within our own beings."[46] The Bahai
writings state that heaven and hell are spiritual conditions rather than
physical locations: heaven is nearness to God and that hell is isolation
from God. For Bahais both of these "conditions" are attainable
in this life and the next, and there is no exclusive salvation or eternal
damnation for any group (even souls in hell, or remoteness from God, can
eventually attain "heaven" or reunion with God -- both in this
life and the "future life"). Also, Bahais believe that Satan
is really an embodiment of the "lower nature" of man, rather
than a personal being. Thus, the fear-based images of "eternal hell"
so often used to manipulate cult members are also absent from the Bahai
Faith.
The
Bahai writings, moreover, are not critical of reason or questioning. This
religion teaches that the "primary duty" [47] of all humanity
is the independent investigation of the truth. Abdul-Baha states:
Another new principle revealed by Bahaullah is the
injunction to investigate truth - that is to say, no man should blindly
follow his ancestors and forefathers. Nay, each must see with his own eyes,
hear with his own ears and investigate the truth himself in order that
he may follow the truth instead of blind acquiescence and imitation of
ancestral beliefs.[48]
In Bahai theology, faith and reason go hand in hand:
Consider what it is that singles man out from among
created beings, and makes of him a creature apart. Is it not his reasoning
power, his intelligence? Shall he not make use of these in his study of
religion? I say unto you: weigh carefully in the balance of reason and
science everything that is presented to you as religion. If it passes this
test, then accept it, for it is truth! If, however, it does not so conform,
then reject it, for it is ignorance!... If religion were contrary to logical
reason then it would cease to be a religion and be merely a tradition.
Religion and science are the two wings upon which man's intelligence can
soar into the heights, with which the human soul can progress. It is not
possible to fly with one wing alone![49]
Possibly because of a lack of clergy -- the Bahai teachings
tell its followers that their first duty is to study their sacred writings:
"To strive to obtain a more adequate understanding of the significance
of Bahaullah's stupendous Revelation must ... remain the first obligation
and the object of the constant endeavor of each one of its loyal adherents."[50]
Moreover, in the Bahai religion there is no visible negative attitude
towards questioning as is characteristic of most cults. The Bahai teachings
state: "It is always through questioning and mature thought that
we can arrive at the root of everything ... in the teachings of Bahaullah
..."[51] Interestingly, one of the Bahai months -- each of which
is each named after a virtue such as light, wisdom, or love -- is named
"questions".
Finally, while the locus of control of individual believers is difficult
to assess, the author has found no evidence that individual Bahais have
been robbed of the responsibility for their actions as members of destructive
cults tend to be. On the contrary, probably because of the lack of clergy,
the Bahai teachings repeatedly stress the responsibility of the individual
believer:
Man is not intended to see through the eyes of another,
hear through another's ears nor comprehend with another's brain. Each human
creature has individual endowment, power and responsibility in the creative
plan of God. Therefore, depend upon your own reason and judgment and adhere
to the outcome of your own investigation...[52]
Thus,
unlike destructive cults, Bahai Faith does not uses controlling techniques,
such as ritual confession or threats of damnation, nor does it condemns
reason, forbid questioning, or foster an unhealthy dependency in its followers.
3. Social and Physical Isolation
As
mentioned above, the Bahai teachings do not promote the notion of exclusive
salvation as do most cults. Moreover, the Bahai religion, encourages,
rather than discouraging interaction with those who are not Bahais. The
Bahai writings state: "There can be no doubt that the progress
of the Cause from this time onward will be characterized by an ever increasing
relationship to the agencies, activities, institutions and leading individuals
of the Non-Bahai World."[53] Bahais are not forbidden to date
or marry non-Bahais[54] as is often the case with most cults, and Bahaullah
stressed the "importance of fellowship with the followers of all
religions."[55] Also, the Bahai religion upholds that Abraham,
Moses, Christ, and Muhammed were all Manifestations of one God. The Bahais
teach that each holy book is a chapter in the book of the "Cause of
God" and that Bahaullahs revelation is the latest chapter in that
book. Bahais, therefore, are urged not only to study their own sacred
writings, but the Bible[56] and the Quran[57] as well.
The
Bahai religion also promotes the notion that all people are of one human
family, and that all races and ethnicities are one:
Bahaullah taught the Oneness of humanity; that is
to say, all the children of men are under the mercy of the Great God. They
are the sons of one God; they are trained by God. He has placed the crown
of humanity on the head of every one of the servants of God. Therefore
all nations and peoples must consider themselves brethren. They are all
descendants from Adam. They are the branches, leaves, flowers and fruits
of One Tree.[58]
Also, Bahais -- unlike the majority of cult members --
are enjoined to serve their families, even before they serve their religion:
Show honour to your parents and pay homage to them.
. . Beware lest ye commit that which would sadden the hearts of your fathers
and mothers. Follow ye the path of Truth which indeed is a straight path.
Should anyone give you a choice between the opportunity to render a service
to Me and a service to them, choose ye to serve them, and let such service
be a path leading you to Me.[59]
This injunction applies whether or not the parents are
Bahais. Thus, the Bahai religion clearly does not foster antipathy towards
non-believers, nor is there any evidence to support the notion that Bahais
live in social isolation.
Moreover,
the physical isolation and secluded living common to many destructive groups
is forbidden in the Bahai Faith. The Bahai teachings stress the importance
of working (even equating work performed in a spirit of service with worship
to God) and balancing this work with service to their religion. Additionally,
the Bahai teachings explicitly forbid monasticism and seclusion:
Living in seclusion or practicing asceticism is not
acceptable in the presence of God, and (Bahaullah) calls upon those
involved to observe that which will cause joy and radiance. He instructs
those who have taken up their abodes in the caves of the mountains or
who have repaired to graveyards at night to abandon these practices,
and He enjoins them not to deprive themselves of the bounties of this
world which have been created by God for humankind . . . While acknowledging
the pious deeds of monks and priests, Bahaullah calls upon them to
give up the life of seclusion and direct their steps towards the open
world and busy themselves with that which will profit themselves and others.
He also grants them leave to enter into wedlock that they may bring forth
one who will make mention of God[60]
The
only thing which remotely resembles communal living are private Bahai
boarding schools. However, these schools are virtually identical to those
of other religions, and have many students who are not Bahais. Thus, it
is clear that the Bahai religion fosters neither the social or physical
isolation so characteristic of destructive religious groups.
4.) Extreme or Fanatical Behavior
The
Bahai teachings stress the importance of moderation in all things. Bahaullah
wrote: "In all matters moderation is desirable. If a thing is carried
to excess, it will prove a source of evil." This is a theme repeated
over and over in the Bahai teachings and manifested in Bahai practices.
In
contrast to the excessive rituals of many cults, the rituals of the Bahai
Faith are few in number and in keeping with the principle of moderation.
Bahais must say one of three "obligatory prayers" daily. There
is a short, a medium, and a long prayer, and the Bahai is free to choose
between the three. Two of the prayers have ritual motions, while the short
prayer (seven lines long) has no ritual motions. Shoghi Effendi states:
Bahaullah has reduced all ritual and form to an absolute
minimum in His Faith. The few forms that there are - like those associated
with the two longer obligatory daily prayers - are only symbols of the
inner attitude. There is a wisdom in them, and a great blessing, but we
cannot force ourselves to understand or feel these things, that is why
He gave us also the very short and simple prayer, for those who did not
feel the desire to perform the acts associated with the other two.[62]
Interestingly, unlike the Muslim and traditional Christian
religions, the Bahai teachings (except in the prayer said at Bahai funerals)
forbid congregational obligatory prayer:
The reason why privacy hath been enjoined in moments
of devotion is this, that thou mayest give thy best attention to the remembrance
of God, that they heart may at all times be animated with His Spirit, and
not be shut out as by a veil from thy Best Beloved. Let not thy tongue
pay lip service in praise of God while they heart be not attuned to the
exalted summit of Glory and the Focal Point of communion[63].
Thus, the Bahai writings teach that ritual is to be avoided.[64]
This view of rituals is in sharp contrast to the practices of most cults.
Although
there is a period of fasting from sun-rise to sun-set in the Bahai Faith
for 19 days each year, the Bahai teachings forbid asceticism:
Living in seclusion or practicing asceticism is not
acceptable in the presence of God. It behoveth them that are endued with
insight and understanding to observe that which will cause joy and radiance.
. . Deprive not yourselves of the bounties which have been created for
your sake.[65]
The fasting that occurs in the Bahai religion is similar
to the structured fasting of the Islamic faith (thought shorter in length)
and very dissimilar to the unstructured and excessive fasting of destructive
cults. Exemptions for fasting and obligatory prayer are made for those
under 15 or over 70, those engaged in heavy physical labor, those who are
ill, those who are traveling, menstruating women, pregnant women, and nursing
mothers.[66]
The
Bahai Faith also condemns the aggressive proselytizing which tends to
characterize destructive religious groups. Bahaullah wrote:
Consort with all men, O people of Baha, in a spirit
of friendliness and fellowship. If ye be aware of a certain truth, if ye
possess a jewel, of which others are deprived, share it with them in a
language of utmost kindliness and good-will. If it be accepted, if it fulfill
its purpose, your object is attained. If any one should refuse it, leave
him unto himself, and beseech God to guide him. Beware lest ye deal unkindly
with him.[67]
This directive is repeated many times in the Bahai writings.
In another place Shoghi Effendi writes, "(Bahais) must be careful
not to teach in a fanatical way."[68] He also cautioned Bahais
against going door to door, stating it was "undignified and might
create a bad impression of the Faith."[69]
Finally,
concerning the use of force commonly abused by destructive cults, the Bahai
Faith teaches its followers to abstain from violence. Bahais, while not
conscientious objectors, are advised to serve in non-combatant military
positions if drafted, and are forbidden to kill[71] unless their own life
is directly threatened. Holy Wars are also forbidden in the Bahai teachings,
and only under extreme circumstances are Bahais allowed to own or carry
weapons.[72] Moreover, Bahais are forbidden to act violently toward children:
Whensoever a mother seeth that her child hath done
well, let her praise and applaud him and cheer his heart; and if the slightest
undesirable trait should manifest itself, let her counsel the child and
punish him, and use means based on reason, even a slight verbal chastisement
should this be necessary. It is not, however, permissible to strike a child,
or vilify him, for the child's character will be totally perverted if he
be subjected to blows or verbal abuse.[73]
In
sum, the Bahai religion clearly does not embody the excessive rituals,
ascetic practices, fanatical "witnessing", or violent behavior
common to most cults.
5.) Secrecy and Deception
This
paper has already discussed in detail the means for the removal of unethical
leaders from their positions, as opposed to the "code of silence"
common for the unethical behavior of a cult leader. Concerning the "secret
doctrine" which is revealed only to the seasoned members of destructive
cults, one cannot be certain that there are no "secret" teachings
which exist only at the summit of Bahai administration -- for if they
exist they are secret. However, there is no evidence to support this notion,
while there is much evidence to the contrary. All of the Bahai writings
(including the writings of Bahaullah himself) were either written by
the author Himself or transcribed by a secretary, and then signed by the
author to authenticate the work. These original writings are stored at
the Bahai World Center in Haifa, Israel, and many are on display for the
public to see. Most of these Bahai writings are available in print on
the internet, where they can be downloaded by anyone free of charge.[74]
Also, the House of Justice, within hours of completion of a new message,
sends its message (both conventionally and electronically) to virtually
every local Bahai community in the world. The Bahai writings, moreover,
stress the vital importance of communication between the House of Justice
and the individual believer.[75]
Concerning
the financial management of the Bahai community, again the authors search
for any unethical dealings has proved fruitless. While the treasurer gives
a monthly report of the financial status of the local community and the
National and International funds are published in The American Bahai
(a free monthly newspaper received by all American Bahais), no Bahais
are allowed to directly solicit money from individual believers. Contributions
are entirely confidential; only the assembly knows who gave what amount
to the Bahai funds, and they are not allowed to disclose this information
to anyone. Shoghi Effendi wrote that giving to the Bahai funds:
... is an entirely personal matter, and each believer
must act according to his own judgment and the needs of the Faith. In times
of crisis, whether in the affairs of the Cause or in one's own family,
people naturally behave differently from under normal circumstances. But
decisions in these matters must rest with each individual Bahai[76].
Additionally, a yearly audit of each local assembly is
submitted to the national assembly to ensure proper and ethical bookkeeping.[77]
A final interesting element of the Bahai finances is that only Bahais
can give to the Bahai funds.[78] Bahais consider it an honor as well
as a duty to give to their religion.
Concerning staged miracles -- a common form of deception
within destructive cults -- the Bahai teachings strongly counsel followers
not to use stories of miracles to teach their religion. The Bahai teachings
state: "We do not need to mention miracles . . . for such miracles
and statements may be denied and refused by those who hear them."[79]
Abdul-Baha wrote:
I do not wish to mention the miracles of Bahaullah,
for it may perhaps be said that these are traditions, liable both to truth
and to error . . . Though if I wish to mention the supernatural acts of
Bahaullah, they are numerous; they are acknowledged in the Orient, and
even by some non-Bahais. But these narratives are not decisive proofs
and evidences to all; the hearer might perhaps say that this account may
not be in accordance with what occurred, for it is known that other sects
recount miracles performed by their founders ... Therefore, miracles are
not a proof. For if they are proofs for those who are present, they fail
as proofs to those who are absent.[80]
Thus, the use of miracles in teaching the Bahai Faith
is condemned, and there is no evidence to show that Bahais do not follow
this aspect of their teachings.
Finally,
concerning the "front groups" often used by destructive cults,
there are no sects or denominations of the Bahai Faith. The Bahai Faith
is a unified global religion, with over 5,000,000 followers world wide.
The Bahai religion has established a "significant following"
in over 205 countries and independent territories and is second only to
Christianity in its geographic diversity.[81] Moreover, all Bahai communities
and administrative bodies are identified as Bahai (for example the Local
Spiritual Assembly of the Bahais of Nashville, the Nashville Bahai Center,
the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahais of Canada, the Vanderbilt
Bahai Student Association, etc.). Thus, it is fair to conclude that the
Bahai Faith does not embody the qualities of secrecy and deception that
are definitive of most destructive cults.
A Final Note on Cults
Generally,
a cult develops around a charismatic leader and reaches its height during
that leaders life time. After his death, unless another charismatic leader
arises, the cult disappears. While this pattern is not exclusive to destructive
religious groups, virtually no cults survive without an authoritarian leader.
Thus, it is interesting to note that when Bahaullah ascended in 1892
there were approximately 50,000 Bahais; when Abdul-Baha ascended in
1921 there were approximately 100,000 Bahais; and, when Shoghi Effendi
passed away in 1957 there were less than 400,000 Bahais in the world.
Since 1957 -- with no living leader -- the Bahai religion has increased
thirteen-fold to well over 5,000,000 Bahais world-wide.[82]
Conclusion
This
paper identified five defining characteristics of a destructive cult: 1.)
a leader demanding total authority, 2.) the use of "controlling"
techniques, 3.) social and physical isolation, 4.) extreme or fanatical
behavior, and 5.) secrecy and deception. A critical examination of the
Bahai Faith showed that it did not embody any of these characteristics.
The Bahai Faith also did not exhibit the same growth pattern as that of
destructive cults -- i.e. while cults almost invariably reached their height
during the cult leaders life time and sharply declined or disappeared
after his death, the Bahai Faith experienced tremendous growth in the
absence of any single leader. Therefore, the Bahai Faith should be classified
not as a destructive cult but rather as a non-destructive religious organization.
Notes
[1] The Cult Experience (London: Greenwood Press,
1982), p. 22.
[2] OCRT Home Page
[3] Refocus Home Page.
The Cult Experience, p. 4.
[4] The Cult Experience, pp. 4-5.
[5] OCRT Home Page
[6] M. Scott Peck, Further Along the Road Less Traveled
(New York: Simon & Shuster, 1993), p. 212.
[7]Steven Hassans Home Page< http://virtumall.com/mindcontrol/main.html>
[8] Refocus Home Page. Steven Hassans Home Page.
[9] Isolation and salvation are discussed in point three
-- "Social and Physical Isolation"; deprivation is discussed
in point four --"Extremist or Fanatical Behavior". [10] The Cult
Experience, pp. 50-51
[11] The Cult Experience, p. 4. Steven Hassans
Home Page.
[12] OCRT Home Page
[13] Further Along the Road Less Traveled, p. 213.
[14] The Cult Experience, p. 4.
[15] The Cult Experience, pp. 4, 6.
[16] The Cult Experience, p. 44. OCRT Home Page.
[17] The Cult Experience, p. 4.
[18] The Cult Experience, pp. 19-20.
[19] The Cult Experience, p. 74.
[20] Steven Hassans Home Page.
[21] OCRT Home Page
[22] The Cult Experience, p. 51.
[23] OCRT Home Page.
[24] Stephen Hassans Home Page.
[25] Steven Hassans Home Page.
[26] Stephen Hassans Home Page.
[27] Further Along the Road Less Traveled, p. 213.
[28] Stephen Hassans Home Page.
[29] The Cult Experience, pp. 50-51.
[30] OCRT Home Page.
[31] Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Bahaullah:
Selected Letters (Wilmette: Bahai Publishing Trust, 1982), pp. 153-154.
[32] Bahaullah, Tablets of Bahaullah (Wilmette:
Bahai Publishing Trust, 1988), pp. 219-223.
[33] Bahaullah, The Kitab-i-Aqdas (Wilmette:
Bahai Publishing Trust, 1993), p. 37.
[34] Abdul-Baha, Will and Testament of Abdul-Baha
(Wilmette: Bahai Publishing Trust, 1991), p. 11.
[35] Will and Testament, pp. 14-15.
[36] A letter of the Universal House of Justice to an
individual believer, May 27, 1966, cited in Helen Hornsby, Lights of
Guidance: A Bahai Reference File, Third revised edition (New Delhi,
Bahai Publishing Trust, 1994), p. 320.
[37] Will and Testament, p. 11-15. A letter to
of the Universal House of Justice to an individual believer, May 27, 1966,
cited in Lights of Guidance, pp. 317-318. [38] Abdul-Baha, Promulgation
of Universal Peace (Wilmette: Bahai Publishing Trust, 1982), pp. 72-73.
[39] From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi
to an individual believer, October 2, 1935, cited in Lights of Guidance,
p. 62-63.
[40] See Lights of Guidance, p. 325-339.
[41] From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi
to the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles, November 22, 1940,
cited in Lights of Guidance, p. 32.
[42] Will and Testament, p. 12.
[43] Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 32.
[44] From a letter of the Universal House of Justice to
the Bahais of the World, June 8, 1973, cited in Lights of Guidance,
p. 189.
[45] Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 193-194.
[46] Shoghi Effendi, High Endeavors, pp. 49-50.
[47] Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day is Come,
p. 6.
[48] Abdul-Baha, Promulgation of Universal Peace(Wilmette:
Bahai Publishing Trust, 1982), p. 454.
[49] Abdul-Baha., Paris Talks (London: The Cromwell
Press, 1955), p. 143-144.
[50] World Order of Bahaullah, p. 100.
[51] Shoghi Effendi, Light of Divine Guidance Vol.
II, p. 9.
[52] Abdul-Baha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace,
p. 293
[53] From the Message of the Universal House of Justice
to the Bahais of the World, Ridvan 1984, cited in Lights of Guidance,
p. 570.
[54] Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 148.
[55] Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 240.
[56] See Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 42.
[57] See a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi
to an individual believer, August 22, 1939, cited in Lights of Guidance,
pp. 497-498.
[58] Abdul-Baha, Abdul-Baha in London, p. 28.
[59] Bahaullah, Family Life, p. 386-387.
[60] Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 196.
[61] Tablets of Bahaullah, p. 69.
[62] Shoghi Effendi, Prayer, Meditation, p. 243.
[63] The Bab, Selections from the Writings of the Bab,
pp. 93-94, cited in Lights of Guidance, p. 456.
[64] See Paris Talks, pp. 120-121.
[65] Tablets of Bahaullah, p. 71.
[66] Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 147.
[67] Bahaullah, Gleanings from the Writings of Bahaullah(Wilmette:
Bahai Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 289.
[68] Shoghi Effendi, Guidelines for Teaching, p.
323.
[69] Guidelines for Teaching, pp. 323-324.
[70] From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi
to an individual believer, July 15, 1952, cited in Lights of Guidance,
p. 407.
[71] Bahaullah, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf
(Wilmette: Bahai Publishing Trust, 1988), p. 25.
[72] Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 240-241.
[73] Abdul-Baha, Selections from the Writings of
Abdul-Baha (Haifa: Bahai World Center, 1978), p. 125.
[74] These files can be downloaded via the internet at
world-wide web addresses ftp://ftp.bwc.org/bahai or ftp://oneworld.wa.com/bahai/bwc
.
[75] A letter from the Universal House of Justice to National
Spiritual Assemblies in Latin America, Africa and the South Pacific, August
28, 1965, cited in Lights of Guidance, p. 39.
[76] Shoghi Effendi, Unfolding Destiny, pp. 447-448.
[77] See a letter written on behalf of the Universal House
of Justice to a National Spiritual Assembly, July 13, 1981, cited in Lights
of Guidance, p258.
[78] See a letter from the Universal House of Justice
to the Bahais of the World, Naw-Ruz, 1974, cited in Lights of Guidance,
pp. 251-252.
[79] Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 364.
[80] Abdul-Baha, Some Answered Questions (Wilmette:
Bahai Publishing Trust, 1981), pp. 37, 101.
[81] The Encyclopedia Britannica Book of the Year,
1992, cited in The Bahais (Oakam: Bahai Publishing Trust of the
United Kingdom, 1992), p. 5-6.
[82] The Bahais, p. 49-57.
This essay was written under the supervision of Dr. Peter
Haas at Vanderbilt University during the Spring of 1996. I am very grateful
to Firouzeh Nour, Gary Matthews, Taraz Samandari, Robert Stockman, and
Mildred Clancey for their valuable input and encouragement.
